Adoption of hybrid learning in Italian higher education: A spatial-multilevel perspective

The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the shift toward hybrid and remote learning, redefining how universities interact with their regional contexts. This study investigates how small and medium-sized universities in Italy have adapted, with particular attention to the influence of regional conditions and spatial interdependencies with larger, private, and online institutions. Using a balanced panel of educational, socio-economic, and digital indicators from 2011–2024, the analysis combines dimension reduction, clustering, spatial econometrics, and multilevel modelling to capture institutional and territorial dynamics. Findings indicate that hybrid adoption is shaped not only by internal capacity but also by competitive pressures, spillover effects, and regional disparities. Northern universities benefit from stronger infrastructures and internationalization, while Southern and insular areas continue to face digital weaknesses and higher attrition. Policy implications highlight the need for region-specific strategies that promote inclusion, strengthen digital engagement, and enhance institutional resilience in an increasingly unequal higher education landscape.